C. Fenner D.Sc., Dip. Ed. and A.G. Paull, B.A., B.Sc.⁴¹

1. Introduction

‘The principle of individual freedom in schools, freedom for the pupil and the teacher, has been stressed by educationists of recent years. At the Fourth International Conference at Locarno, in 1927,⁴² authorities from many lands made valuable contributions towards a proper definition of this ideal. As one speaker pointed out, the tendencies are for a three-fold freedom, namely:— (a) Freedom from the restrictions of courses of study; (b) freedom from the needless conventional methods, the routine, and the things mistakenly called discipline; and (c) freedom for the teacher, so that he may become a creative, responsible person, free from forms of pettifogging external control. The mere recital of these tendencies will arouse antagonisms and doubts among those who have not absorbed something of the revolutionary spirit that is everywhere abroad today. But all will agree that the subject is one worthy of careful, restrained, and well-conducted experiment.’

The experiment which is dealt with in this paper arose out of a stimulating discussion regarding the ‘Dalton Plan,’ which took place in the Education Section at the Perth meeting of the Association in 1926. The experiment at the Thebarton Technical High School was put into operation from the beginning of 1927, and a preliminary account was read at the Hobart meeting in 1928.

‘A few introductory words are necessary regarding the school, the curriculum, the staff, buildings, and equipment. The school is called the Thebarton Technical High School, and is the only one of its kind in the South Australian Education Department. It is situated in Thebarton, a closely-populated suburb in the north-western part of the metropolitan area. It is wholly a boys’ school and the attendance averages about 450 boys, varying from 12 to 17 years of age, drawn from all parts of the State, but chiefly from the metropolitan district; no special test is required for entrance, except the passing of the examination which marks the completion of the primary school course.

The curriculum is that of the ‘modern’ or ‘manual’ type of secondary school. It includes a two-year, a three year, and a four year course of sound general education, with no Latin, but with French as an optional subject. Special provision is made for education in various branches of drawing, in experimental science, and in a variety of types of manual training. There is a certain freedom of curriculum, since this is open to modification at any time. The main body of the school is quite free from the bondage (or otherwise) of external examinations. Those students who choose to remain for a fourth year may sit for the Leaving Public Examinations, thus providing a link between this school and the University.

The staff consists of selected men teachers, all with the enthusiasm of youth, and with high qualifications either on the academic or on the craft side, as the case may be. In spite of the fact that so much laboratory work, drawing, and manual instruction is involved, all of which necessitates small classes, this experiment in Individual Freedom is being conducted at present with a staff of 21 teachers, dealing with about 420 boys, indicating that so difficult an experiment may yet be carried out with a staff that is no larger in proportion than that usually allotted to similar types of schools working under the class system. For the past three years and over, each member of the staff has given whole-hearted support to the difficult and additional work that is involved in such a complete change of school system as is at present in operation.

The building is new and adequate, well lighted and ventilated, with commodious laboratories and workshops, set in five acres of ground, and with a large adjoining sports ground available on special occasions. The practical workshops are equipped for classes in woodworking, sheetmetal, blacksmithing, fitting, turning, clay modelling and printing.

It will be seen that the general conditions of the school are such that the stage was appropriately set for an experiment in individual freedom, such as that which has been attempted. The outstanding difficulty has been that of ‘tradition.’ Every member of the staff has received his training under the formal and traditional classroom system; every teacher has long bowed his head at the altar of examinations; every boy who comes to the school has had six or more years of ‘class’ conditions, leaning heavily on his teachers, stopping and starting each subject when he was told, and acting almost as does the private in time of war — a cog in a machine.

To those educationists who are used to the class system, with all its excellences as well as its defects, and who may have considered the question of individual freedom purely in a contemplative way, we may express our belief that few teachers can realise the revolutionary effect of so complete a change of system. Trivial but time-honoured methods and devices prove to be unnecessary; new methods must be developed. Old practices become disconcertingly unimportant; curious and unconsidered difficulties arise. We are all creatures of tradition. Our minds have been so set in the old moulds that at times we do not realise that our hoary devices are indeed ineffective. Our minds think along the old lines, even when we believe we are considering the new. ‘Individual freedom,’ for any one of us, is indeed a difficult achievement.

It has fallen to the lot of one of us (C.F.) to launch this experiment, to watch it, to guide and to supervise, as duty and opportunity permitted and required. For another (A.G.P.) has been the business of the captain, always on the ship, his hand ever on the helm, in close contact with a crew encouraged to express individuality, steering an equable but varying course in almost uncharted waters, often with no more that stray fragments of wreckage for a guide. It is almost unnecessary to add that the greater part of this paper has been written by Mr Paull. He and his staff have done the work of developing and originating the various details of educational technique that are, we hope, leading this experiment towards success. To resume the foregoing figure of speech, it may be said that since we left the old and charted courses our ‘sailing directions’ have been completely revolutionised, and the one thing that has remained clear and distinct is the ‘aim’ with which we originally set out — the harbour we hope to reach.

It should be added, in acknowledgment, that this experiment⁴³ in Individual Freedom would not have been possible without the support and sympathy given to it by the late Director of Education, Mr W.T. McCoy, to which has been added the whole-hearted assistance of the present Director, Mr W.J. Adey.’

(The rest of this article, written by Mr Paull, provides details of the processes through which the aim of education through individual freedom was being undertaken. Selected parts of Mr Paull’s description of the experiment are included because, while he writes in the impersonal third person singular, he is recording his practical knowledge of what was happening in the day-to-day life of this experimental school. His estimation, and the comments of Dr Fenner, are those of men committed to the Dalton Plan. This is not just theory. This is the first documented effort to connect theory and practice in the life of a South Australian secondary school. Forty years later the Karmel Committee was seeking the same connection particularly in the technical and science-based subjects. An interesting omission is the absence of reference to support of this new school at a tertiary level. However, I have been told that, in the 1930s, some student teachers were sent to Thebarton to see what was being achieved under the Dalton Plan. Much will sound familiar to those seeking the development of self reliance and self-discipline in students today. Ed.)

The organisation of Thebarton Technical High School

(a) Specialist Teachers

Under the scheme of Individual Freedom, an attempt has been made to place the teachers in charge of those subjects which their special abilities make them best fitted to teach. One of the effects of this specialisation is that students come into close contact with most of the teachers, and it is believed that one of the chief advantages derived from this contact is the development of a corporate spirit within the school.

Besides being subject teachers, more than half of the men are in charge of groups of students. In this aspect of their work they play the part of guide, philosopher and friend to their charges, and watch their general progress throughout their school life.

(b) Subject Laboratories

The classrooms have been converted into subject rooms. This has been done in the belief that ‘the school should be a laboratorium rather than an auditorium’; a place where the students can be actively engaged, each on his own task, instead of one where teachers lecture while students listen. When a boy comes to school in the morning he elects to proceed with a certain portion of his set work, and accordingly enters the room set apart for that work.

Teachers do not go from room to room to teach their classes, as under the class system, but are visited in their special subject rooms by boys requiring their help. This applies also to the set lessons which are given. The lesson groups go from one subject room to another, according to the general timetable. An effort is made to decorate each room appropriately, and to supply it with the equipment necessary for the proper teaching of its particular subject. The general aim is to provide the students with a suitable environment, where they may carry out their studies in an atmosphere of individual freedom.

(c) The Assignment

Some teachers go so far as to say that the success or failure of any scheme of Individual Freedom in which assignments are used depends on the manner in which those assignments are prepared. While this may be a somewhat extreme statement, it is certainly true that the assignments are very important, and that their careful preparation is one of the chief duties of the teacher.

The students must be interested by the matter which is presented. In another connection Dr Ovide Decroly, of Brussels, has said: ‘Interest is the sluice-gate. By means of it the reservoir of attention is opened and directed. It is the stimulus by which nervous energy is released.’— (The Decroly Class, by Amelie Hamaide, Dent). But he goes on to say the interest of a child is not that of an adult.

It may be seen that the preparation of the assignments is difficult as well as important, but the difficulty of securing the maximum amount of interest is one which all teachers have to face, whatever their method of teaching. Miss Parkhurst deals with this problem in her book on the Dalton Plan, and refers to the ‘interest pockets’ which, she maintains, are essential if the assignment is to be satisfactory. The subject teachers prepare their own assignments, which are approved by the senior masters before they are cyclostyled.

(d) The Class and the Lesson Group

The ‘class’ as that term is generally understood (a group of pupils enrolled on one list), is retained for organisation purposes, and each class teacher is responsible for the records of his group of boys throughout the year. As has been explained, he also acts as counsellor to his boys. He helps them to plan their work, and in other ways assists them as much as possible.

The boys do not change their class, but as they forge ahead or fall behind in their work they do the lessons prescribed for the lesson group above or below them. The personnel of the lesson groups is therefore continually changing, but the ‘class groups’ remain fixed. This arrangement makes it possible for suitable set lessons to be given to students at different stages in the course, and at the same time the class spirit is retained. Moreover, as the class teacher has the same group of boys always under his supervision, he is better able to watch their progress and select the path along which their best development is most likely to be secured.

(e) The Timetable

A certain number of set lessons in the theoretical subjects are still given at definite times, and for this reason it has been found advisable to have a general timetable. The various manual workshops also, for obvious reasons, are available to each group of students at fixed times, but with the element of freedom in the work and methods. About two-thirds of each student’s time is devoted to free work. A timetable has been devised that, by means of symbols etc, represents the school’s activities, both free and otherwise.

(f) Records

Students’ progress cards and teachers’ laboratory graphs, similar to those recommended by Miss Parkhurst, were adopted in the beginning, and have been retained with some modifications. A homework record is kept on the back of each student’s progress card. The headmaster also keeps a register which shows the dates on which all students’ cards were issued, and also the number of days taken to do the assignments. He thus comes individually in contact with every boy in his school.

(g) Social Clubs

An effort is made to cater for the many interests of the students by activities which are not included in the school curriculum. Numerous social clubs are in existence, and regular lunch hour meetings are held. Members of the staff are interested in these organisations, and take an active part in their proceedings. An enumeration of the clubs will be sufficient to show the variety of subjects dealt with. In addition to the prefectures and ‘House’ commitments, and many sports teams, including football, cricket, tennis, soccer and swimming, there were the following clubs: Science, Stamp and Correspondence, Junior Red Cross, First Aid, Life Saving, Meccano, Dramatic and Magazine. A number of Christian Union Circles have also recently been formed.

The students take a most prominent part in the conduct of these societies, and are thus given a further opportunity of developing their individuality. Effort is made for every boy to be interested in one or more of the social and sports activities of the school.

Difficulties Met and Efforts Made to Solve Them

(a) Varying abilities of pupils

In 1927 the teachers found it a comparatively simple matter to see that the boys did their assignments in the prescribed time. It is not suggested, however, that all boys took the same number of days to do a particular assignment. Due allowance was made for the varying capacities of the students.

That no serious difficulty was experienced in this direction was due to the following facts, namely, that the numbers were small, that the students were fairly well advanced in their secondary school studies, that the teachers were keen, and that the experiment had then been in operation for such a short time that it was not possible for the boys to fall very far behind. When the method was applied to the whole school, however, the difficulty which the teachers experienced – in seeing that the boys of average ability did their work in the prescribed time – was increased. Some of the teachers now had over 300 boys to deal with in their respective subjects, and it was difficult to keep in close touch with them all.

Particularly was this the case with the dull boys and the less-interested ones, who rapidly fell behind in their work. The trouble, too, was cumulative in its effect. Under ordinary class conditions, each boy started afresh each day so far as the year’s work was concerned. Under the assignment system, the longer the slow boys worked the further they fell behind in their assignments, and the natural consequence was that they became discouraged.

There was … a very important class of students who fell behind. Here were included a number of good boys of average ability, who were apparently doing their work conscientiously, and who yet failed to do the amount that was demanded of them. These backward average students constituted a real difficulty, and the following measures were introduced in the effort to solve it:

(i) Weekly assignments

The monthly assignment was seen as too great a task for the average boy. It was therefore decided, in 1929, instead of issuing a month’s work at a time, assignments consisting of a week’s work in all subjects should be given to the students.

(ii) Reduced assignments

The teachers naturally wished to treat their subjects as thoroughly as possible, and at first were reluctant to reduce the work set in the assignments. They feared that the body of knowledge which they wished to impart would become a mere skeleton. When the position was clearly understood, however, a more reasonable demand was made on the students. Experience has proved the teachers’ fears to be groundless.

(iii) Home-work Record

Under the Individual Freedom Plan, it is not advisable to set definite homework for the majority of students each night; the assignments carry the requirements both for homework and for school work. During 1928 and the greater part of 1929, however, many of the boys confessed from time to time that they had done little or no home work. (With parents asked to sign students’ progress cards every night, there has been a marked improvement in the students’ rate of working. Parents now report to us that they no longer have to ‘drive’ their sons to their home work; the assignment must be done and they do it.)

(iv) Detention of Backward Boys

It was explained to the honest slow workers that they were being detained for special help, and those who had neglected their work were given to understand that their detention was in the nature of a corrective measure. It must be admitted, however, that the boys failed to discriminate between these reasons and some of the boys who were really trying to get their work done became discouraged, while the rest became resigned to their detention…At present detention is imposed only when the teacher thinks that it will be effective.

(v) Sports Period

The work-time lost during sports period is more than compensated for by the improved attitude of the boys to their work.

(vi) Additional lessons

Teachers saw the class system of teaching as having ‘an inspirational and a knowledge-giving character’. [T]hese ‘class lessons’ have developed into something different, called ‘group lessons’.

(vii) Free Work in Mornings

This has been done in order that the students may have a long, unbroken period of free work when their minds are fresh.

(viii) Timetable for Backward Boys

Concern was expressed that the ever-present possibilities of idleness and deceit had to be specially guarded against. There is one special first-year group which has a fixed timetable; the weakest boys are placed in this group. As the slower boys catch up, and the lazy ones convince their teacher that they are able to work for themselves, they are reinstated in one of the normal sections, and replaced by the other boys who may have fallen behind.

(ix) Frequent Re-grading of Students

It is felt that the two ‘non-free’ classes, together with the frequent regrading of the boys into the various lesson groups, have helped to solve many of the difficulties which have had to be faced in the past.

Mr Paull gives the detailed engagement of staff in the analysis of the progress of this approach to students’ learning. The article includes comments by staff in the final 1929 reports. English – ‘this plan with all its admitted imperfections is preferable to a return to the rigid system to which we were previously accustomed.’ French – ‘more class lessons should be given.’ (More time is required for oral work and conversation in class.) Geography⁴⁴ – ‘I believe that the individual freedom plan is superior to the old system in almost every respect, and the longer I teach under it the more I am convinced of its superiority.’ Arithmetic and Mensuration. ‘We are endeavouring to train the boys to tackle the problems of life, and I consider that this alone outweighs many of the weaknesses that can be urged against the plan.’ Algebra – ‘Fundamentally, the individual freedom plan appears to lay more stress upon character development as a foundation for citizenship than upon academic accomplishment. Personal responsibility is the outstanding feature of the work, and it is believed that a useful citizenship in its fullest sense can be developed only when boys have constant training in responsibility, initiative, self-reliance, organisation and judgment. In creating opportunities for the development of the qualities referred to, the plan fits in admirably with the Vocational Guidance Scheme, for such qualities are most desirable in a boy who seeks employment. Under the new plan, his education becomes more or less a training for citizenship, and good citizens will be good workmen. From my criticism, it may appear that the undesirable features of the new methods outweigh their virtues, but, in my opinion quite the opposite is the case. Defects have been pointed out and improvements suggested for the sole purpose of more nearly perfecting a system of education which appears to me to be far superior to the class system in moulding habits of good citizenship, individuality and the desire to be educated in the fullest sense of the word.’ Geometry – ‘So far as the teaching of theoretical geometry is concerned, a serious difficulty is the absence of a text-book written for this type of teaching. In spite of this disadvantage, the progress made by the students, as judged by a comparison of examination results, has been as good as under the class system. I feel certain that we are assisting to evolve a system of teaching which will enable the child to develop his personality, and which will fit him for the responsibilities of life.’

Science – ‘I believe that the teaching of this subject has improved greatly under the individual freedom plan. Owing to the greater amount of practical work possible, and the desire which the students develop to read good books on the subjects, a much wider knowledge of scientific method is obtained.’ Drawing – (Concern is expressed for a falling off of quality.) ‘This is due to various causes, viz.:— (1) An attempt on the part of the students to hurry through their work; (2) inadequate supervision on the part of the teachers, owing to the great amount of marking to be done; and (3) insufficient preliminary instruction in fundamental principles at the beginning of the year. If more class lessons could be given in drawing subjects for the first month or two, the quality of the work done would be much improved, and the plan could be applied as successfully to drawing as to any other subject in the curriculum.’ Woodwork, Metalwork, and Clay Modelling – ‘It was thought advisable to teach these subjects at definite times, as under the class system, but their very nature has made individual work a necessity. Moreover, a great deal of freedom has been allowed the students in the choice of models. Boys have been encouraged to submit original designs for models, and most of the students have been working along these free lines.’⁴⁵

Attitude of Parents and Students.

A.G. Paull bases acceptance on the comments of parents invited to visit the school in 1928. (1) ‘They were invited to question the teachers and students, so they might learn as much about the work as possible. They came to the conclusion that the plan of individual freedom which was in operation was superior to the class system with which they were familiar.’ (2) … ‘One parent transferred his son to another school, in spite of the fact that the boy was making excellent progress, and that he liked free work.’ (3) … ‘The father of one of the first year students stated that his son appeared to be making splendid progress, and was thoroughly interested in his work, which he accomplished without fatigue. The boy proved to be of but average ability, and this fact made the father’s testimony the more pleasing.’ (4) ‘The opinion of the great majority of parents has not been learnt.’ (A.G. Paull points to the enrolments since 1928 when the plan began – 1928, 434; 1929, 491; 1930, 444.)⁴⁶

‘It has been thought unwise to question the students directly on their attitude to individual freedom, but information has been gained indirectly and unobtrusively from a number of them.’ (The views of good, average and weak students are summarised.) ‘To sum up, it is felt that for good and average students the plan as we have developed it is most successful, but for some of the weaker boys the class system is preferable. By the establishment of the fixed class groups, these weaker boys are provided for. Effort is made to secure the best possible development of all the students by providing for them the two types of training.’ ⁴⁷

General observations includes reference to penalties and rewards, the rate of working, demonstrated through a graph, the headmaster’s register, examination results in which he quotes John Adams in Modern Developments in Educational Practice writing of external examinations ‘Nothing of vital importance can be done in the way of reforming educational methods till this incubus – [external examinations] – has been removed. Let it be admitted at once that there is need of some means of testing the results of the teacher’s work in some directions that lend themselves to this form of estimating results. The highest results of a teacher’s work can never be tested by any formal examination,’ A.G. Paull concludes . . An inspection of a great number of sets of marks, however, points to the conclusion that examination results do not suffer under the scheme.’ ⁴⁸

A.G. Paull says, of ‘quality v quantity’: ‘The teachers, on their part, were reluctant to reject the work presented, as, by doing so, they would retard the students’ rate of working. The marks system already referred to has helped to solve this problem. Boys now receive credit for the quality as well as for the quantity of work done, and are thus encouraged to aim at a high standard in their exercises.’ In the section on ‘texts and reference books’ A.G. Paull comments on the development of the library and the class libraries and says, ‘The book system is an important feature of the scheme, and many of the parents have praised it highly. The fact that the cost of books is greatly reduced under this system is considered to be one of its chief advantages from the parents’ point of view.’ ⁴⁹ Of ‘homework’ Paull writes ‘The boys who are in the fixed classes do set homework as under the class system. The rest work on their assignments for a certain time every night, and the time so spent is recorded on the backs of their progress cards. This record is signed by the parents. It has been found in many cases that boys do extra homework in order to retain the privilege of free work… .It is believed that fatigue is greatest when a definite task is imposed and when part of that task is insurmountable by the student.’ ⁵⁰

In the conclusion the principal refers to Sir John Adams’ warning against static systems of education.⁵¹ Of Thebarton, he says ‘the system which is in operation at Thebarton is still in a plastic state, as it has been from the beginning, and it is felt that in the accompanying possibilities of development lies one of its chief merits. Continuous adjustments must be made to meet changing conditions, and we cannot picture the system we have developed as ever becoming hard and fast. It is a continuous process of ‘becoming’:

Tis a life-long toil till our lump be leaven

The better! what’s come to perfection perishes.

‘Since the beginning of the present century, many experiments in individual freedom in education have been made. The names of Montessori, Decroly and Parkhurst suggest themselves as those of leaders in the movement towards freedom. Although they have experimented along very different lines, they have had a common aim, viz:- to secure the full development of their pupils through self-activity based on interest. They have laid emphasis on active learning rather than on passive listening. Aldous Huxley, in his Proper Studies (p. 114) states that, in most schools, ‘too much stress is laid on teaching and too little on active learning. The child is not encouraged to discover things on his own account. He learns to rely on outside help, not on his own powers, thus losing intellectual independence and all capacity to judge for himself. The over-taught child is the father of the newspaper-reading, advertisement-believing, propaganda-swallowing, demagogue-led man – the man who makes modern democracy the farce it is.’ ⁵²

In the penultimate paragraph A.G. Paull says: ‘It is felt, however, that the free time which the students at Thebarton are given is so spent that they are deriving much benefit from it. In it they not only acquire a knowledge of the subjects dealt with in their assignments, but also unconsciously learn how to study, and how to attack and to carry out the job (‘assignment’) that Life sets for them to do. It is believed that they also develop a greater measure of resourcefulness and independence, and gain a fuller appreciation of the obligations implied in freedom than they would under a more rigid system of education.’

In conclusion he faces the question – ‘would it be better if the free plan were applied only to pupils of proved energy and ability, while those pupils with lesser potentialities and ambitions (as decided by some form of intelligence testing, scholastic records, or previous school history) were placed under a system of schooling in which the free work is subordinate and the class-teaching dominant? This is at present no more than a question, but it is one to which special attention will be given during the coming years of the Thebarton experiment.’

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